7.2 what factors influence population size?

populations can grow, decline, or remain fairly stable
人口改變＝（出生率＋遷入）-（死亡率＋遷出）
birth rate
death rate

women are having fewer babies but not few enough to stabilize the world population
fertility rate生育率
replacement-level fertility rate (2.1 to 2.5)
total fertility rate(TFR)1.6 to 2.9-台灣在95年總生育率已降至1.1

Case study- the U.S. population is growing rapidly
oscillation振動,擺動
homicide殺人犯
大多數已開發國家人口在2010開始減少，台灣預估在2018開始減少。

Several factors affect birth rates and fertility rates
1. importance of childern as a part of the labor force.
2. cost of raising and educating children.
3. availability of private and public pension退休金;養老金 systems
4. urbanization
5. educational and empolyment opportunities available for women
6. infant mortality rate
7. average age at marrage(first child)
8. availability of legal abortions
9. availability of reliable birth control methods
10. regligious beliefs, traditions, and cultural norms

Several factors affect death rates
food supplies and distribution 食物供給與分配（批發零售）
immunization免疫
curtail縮減,削減
incidence發生率
undernutrition營養不足
malnutrition營養失調，營養不良

7.1 how many people can the earth support?

Human population growth continues but is unevenly distributed

year1 200million, year 1804 1billion, year1927 2billion, year1960 3billion, year1975 4billion (exponential growth)


sanitation公共衛生,環境衛生
antibiotic抗生素,抗菌素
vaccine疫苗
影響人口增加的三因素1.expand into diverse new habitats 2.mordern agriculture 3. development of sanitation systems, antibiotics, and vaccines

目前全球人口增加率為1.23％每年
least equipped最少的裝備

分布不平均－已開發國家0.1％(1.2million)，開發中國家1.5％(80.8million)

We do not know how long the human population can keep growing
deliberate深思熟慮的,慎重的
sidestepping side-step避免
steadily平穩地

Case study- are there too many of us?
sheer全然的;純粹的
intrusion侵入;闖入
proponent提議人;擁護者
intensify加強,增強
impairing削弱;減少

chapter 7 applying population ecology

core case study- the ecocity concept in Curitiba, Brazil
envision展望
pedestrian徒步的,步行的
crisscross十字形
recovered materials 回收物料
roving游動的;巡迴的
acclaim歡呼;喝采;稱讚
spoke輪輻
stripping剝奪;掠奪[(+of)]
climactic頂點的;高潮的

6.5 What limits the growth of populations?

Most populations live in clumps or patches
clump形成一叢(或一堆、一團等)
creosote bush木餾(油)小灌木叢

Populations can grow, shirink, or remain stable
birth, immigration, death, emigration

No population can grow indefinitely: J-curves and S-curves
intrinsic rate of increase 內在增殖率
biotic potential生物潛能，生物在最適環境條件下的最大生殖能力。
impose把...強加於
infectious傳染性的
dwindle漸漸減少;變小
level off 弄平
sigmoid - S形的
logistic growth-sigmoid function又稱logistic function，Logit模型（Logit model，也译作“评定模型”，“分类评定模型”，又作Logistic regression，“逻辑回归”）是离散选择法模型之一，属于多重变量分析范畴，是社会学、生物统计学、临床、数量心理学、市场营销等统计实证分析的常用方法
dieback(植物)枝葉枯萎(而根部仍活)

Species have different reproduction patterns
reproductive生殖的
r-selected species 機會
rodent齧齒目動物
dandelion蒲公英
foothold立足處,踏腳處
boom-and-bust cycle繁榮與蕭條
k-selected species均衡
birds of prey猛禽
saguaro北美洲巨型仙人掌
orange roughy大西洋胸棘鯛
swordfish箭（劍）魚

Human are not exempt from nature's population control
exempt免除,豁免[(+from)]
bubonic plague腺鼠疫
flu epidemic流感
fatal致命的
immunodeficiency免疫不全
toll傷亡人數
ingenuity心靈手巧;獨創性;足智多謀
impose加(負擔等)於[(+on/upon)]

Case study - exploding white-tailed deer populations in the United States
soared猛增;暴漲
lyme disease萊姆病，一種螺旋體細菌Borrelia burgdorferi引起的，患病者開始會有發燒頭疼，脖子僵硬，肌肉關節酸痛，淋巴腫脹等現象，嚴重的有皮膚，關節，神經，心臟和大腦等系統的嚴重疾病。家禽寵物或者居家老鼠、也會帶有傳播病菌的跳蚤。由跳蚤(硬壁虱，Ixodes spp)叮咬傳染人類。
archer弓箭手
tree stand
cruel殘忍的,殘酷的
scent氣味
rotting腐爛,腐壞
fencing柵欄;籬笆
vaccine疫苗的
sterilize使絕育
repel擊退;驅除

6.4 How do communities respond to changing environmental coditions?

Communities and ecosystems change over time: ecological succession
primary succession原生演替
secondary succession次生演替

lichen地衣

mosses苔蘚

herb 草本植物

shrub矮樹;灌木

heath石南

mat地蓆;草蓆

jack pine 松樹 加拿大短葉松

black spruce雲杉 黑雲衫

aspen山楊

balsam fir冷杉 香膠冷杉/香脂冷杉

paper birch樺木 紙皮樺

white spruce 白雲杉
candidate候選人
germinate發芽;生長
disturbance擾亂;打擾
intermediate中等程度的disturbance hypothesis

Connell (1978)以熱帶雨林受暴風雨干擾現象提出中度干擾假說(Intermediate DisturbanceHypothesis 簡稱IDH )，此假說認為頻繁的干擾、強度極高或規模極大之干擾可能摧毀大部分生物社會的物種，使生物多樣性降低；不頻繁的干擾、強度極低或規模極小之干擾不太影響生物社會的物種，所以生物多樣性會依原有狀態因競爭而趨減；只有中度干擾促使演替有足夠時間與空間進行，因此生物多樣性會保持最高。

Succession doesn't follow a predictable path
balance-of-natural hypotheis自然平衡
preordain預定;注定
permanent永恆的;永遠的
Should we protect natural systems from harmful human activities? the precautionary principle
ballistic失去理智的
precautionary principle預防原則
preliminary初步的
adage諺語;格言
Speed Bump(減速丘)

6.3 How do species interact?

Most species compete with one another for resources
five basic types of interactions between species: 

1.competition, 2.predation掠食, 3.parasitism寄生, 4.mutualism互利共生, and 5.commensalism偏利共生.

serve as agents of natural selection
no two species can share the same vital and limited resource for very long, one of species must mirgrate, shift feeding habit or behavior, population sharp decline, or extinct.

profound深刻的;深切的
Some species evolve ways to share resources
resource partitioning (lions and leopards, hawks and owls, insect-eating warblers鳴禽)
hawk鷹,隼
owl鴞裊,貓頭鷹

Some species feed on other species: predation
predator-prey relationship
at population level is kind of natural selection
如何看待捕食行為 ecological role - controlling rabbit populations
predators have many methods help them capture prey
1.pursuit and ambush

2.camouflage

3.chemical warfare化學戰
prey evolved many ways to avoid predators

1.run, swim, or fly fast
2.highly developed sense
3.protective shell, thick bark, spines, and throns 斷尾求生
4.camouflage
5.chemical warfare-poisionous, irritating, foul smelling, or bad tasting 烏賊墨汁
6.warning coloration

7.mimicry

contempt輕視,蔑視
root打氣;喝采(+for)pursuit追擊
ambush埋伏;伏擊
keen敏銳的
pack一群

camouflage偽裝;掩飾

in plain sight就在眼前
praying mantis合掌螳螂
white ermines貂
weasel鼬鼠,黃鼠狼
venom毒液
paralyze使麻痺;使癱瘓
deter威懾住,嚇住
alert警覺的

armadillos犰狳

bark樹皮

sequoia紅杉

spine(動、植物的)刺,針
porcupine豪豬
thorn刺,棘

chameleon變色龍

cuttlefish墨魚;烏賊

twig細枝
hare野兔
poisonous有毒的
oleander歐洲夾竹桃
irritating使疼痛
stinging nettle刺痛蕁麻
bombardier beetle放屁甲蟲

foul惡臭的
skunk臭鼬
stinkbug發惡臭的蟲
buttercup毛茛屬植物
monarch butterfiy帝王蝶
flash亮出;誇示
striking惹人注目的
deadly致命的,致死的

mimicry模仿;模擬
Some species feed off other species by living on or in them: parasitism
parasite benefit and host is harmed
some parasites live inside the hosts(tapeworms and microorganism), other parasites attach themselves to the outsides of their hosts(mistletoe and sea lampreys). some parasites have little contact with their host(cowbirds)
at population level, promote biodiversity, keep hosts' population in check.feed off- Use something to your advantage

parasite 寄生生物

tapeworm絛蟲

pathogen病原體
mistletoe槲寄生

lamprey七鰓鰻;八目鰻
flea跳蚤
tick壁蝨

cowbird燕八哥
keep in check抑制

In some interactions, both species benefit: mutualism
honeybees, caterpillars, and other insets with flower
coral reef - reef-building coral animals and bacteria
nutrition and protection(birds that ride on the backs of large animals)(clownfish species and sea anemones)(specialized fungi combine with plant roots)(gut inhabitant mutualism)

mutualism互利共生
caterpillar毛蟲
nectar花蜜
tissue(動植物的)組織
pest害蟲
anemone海葵
tentacle觸鬚,觸手,
paralyze使麻痺;使癱瘓
mycorrhizae菌根
myriad無數,大量
gut腸,腸子
trait特徵,特點

In some interactions, one species benefits and the other is not harmed
commensalism共生(silverfish insect and army ants)
epiphyte附生(orchids and bromeliads)
birds nest

commensalism共生
silverfish蠹魚
raid侵吞,盜用
epiphyte附生植物
bromeliad鳳梨科植物
limb大樹枝,主枝